In the history of Indian philosophy
the place of Sankaracharya is both permanent and high. He is gifted with
extra-ordinary intelligence, a deeply penetrating mind, critical insight,
logical reasoning, philosophical analysis, religious purity, sublimity of
renunciation and profound spirituality. His contribution to Indian philosophy
and to Vedic religion and culture is unparalleled. The credit of establishing
Advaita Vedanta as a sound philosophical system goes to Sankaracharya. He was a
champion of knowledge and he dedicated his life to selfless service (nishkama karma) and devotion to God (bhakti). Hence his life can be
considered as an ample proof that selfless service and devotion may go well
with spiritual enlightenment (jnana).Although
he disclaimed originality, he wrought a revolution in the minds of men, the
salutary effects of which can be felt even today. This was made clear by Dr. S.
Radhakrishnan when he stated “His philosophy stands forth complete, needing
neither a before nor an after…whether we agree or differ, the penetrating light
of his mind never leaves as wherever we were.”1 He thus
set a model in thinking and exposition which subsequent philosophers in India
have striven to follow. Here in this paper our attempt is to discuss whether
Sankara is a Philosopher, theologian or a social reformer. Many attempts were
made to unravel this issue among the Indian and Western scholars. The discussion
seems to be relevant since it is possible for us to place him in all the above
said heads.
Sankara
appeared on the firmament of Indian thought at a time the country was caught in
a great churning process- politically, socially and culturally. It was such
chaotic atmosphere that Sankara brought his life giving philosophy of the
Non-dual Brahman of the Upanishads. He never claimed for himself any kind of
originality for his teachings. His originality was in reinterpreting the great traditions
of the country to suit the conditions of the time.
Works of
Sankara
Sankara’s
writings show great intellectual power, logical precision and emotional profundity.
If it is asked what the greatest contribution that Sankara has made is, the
answer would be the exposition of the true import of the scriptures through his
various commentaries and many books. It is not definitely known how many books
he had written, but it is said that it is more than one hundred and fifty. To
read through these books even once, it would take a number of years. To study
them, even whole life time will not be sufficient. This was made clear by Prof.
Namboothiri when he mentioned that, “…too little has been said and much has
been left out of the unfathomable depth and unmeasurable vastness of Sankara’s
ocean of knowledge. Yet there is one consoling thought: to experience the
salinity of the vast ocean we need only a drop on our tongue.”2
The works of Sankara
can be broadly classified into these sections. 1. Commentaries (Bhasyas). They are commentaries on the
Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutra.
They together form the Prasthanatarya and
Sankara’s bhasyas serve as a guide, a
golden key, unlocking for us the vast treasure chambers of wisdom contained in
our scriptures. These three works form the cornerstone on which the whole
edifice of Hinduism stands. 2. Books dealing with the fundamental concepts of
Vedanta (Prakarana granthas), Vivekachoodamani, Atma-bodha,
Tattvabodha etc are some of the Prakarana granthas, and 3.Meditation verses
(Stotras) His stotras invariably consisted of prayers to grant one the true light
of knowledge and discrimination and to save one from the wheel of birth and
death- thus setting forth an ideal to be pursued by the students.
Sankara as a
theologian:-
Sankara was not only a great thinker and noblest of
Advaitic philosopher, but he was essentially an inspired champion of Hinduism. This
was rightly pointed out by Swami Chinmayananda when he wrote, “An exquisite
thinker a brilliant intellect, a personality scintillating with the vision of
Truth, a heart throbbing with industrious faith and ardent desire to serve the
nation, sweetly, emotionally, and relentlessly logical, in Sankara the
Upanishads discovered the fittest spiritual general.”3 Such a
powerful leader was needed at that time when Hinduism had been almost smothered
within the entanglements of the Buddhist philosophy.
Sankara has developed a number of stotras or hymns in praise of Gods and
he has written Bhasyas or prasthanatraya which forms the basis on
which the whole of Hinduism is based. Hence he was an inspiration to our
country as a reviver of the glorious Hindu culture. He was not an exclusive Saivate or Vaishnavite or Sakta and
yet he stood out to be the best among Saivates,
Vaishnavaites and Saktas, thus setting a model for the
respective groups for the correct method of worship. One of the very first tasks
of Sankara was to promote religious harmony among the Hindus. As we saw
earlier, he sought to unite them on the basis of the principle of unity which
is Advaita. This was made clear by Prof. Victor George when he stated that,
“Sankaracharya was not to be a critic by denying the personal God and worship
but interested to establish unity among the systems. His mission is not to bring
quarrel among various theological systems but to see that a spirit of unity prevails.
He interpreted the theology of the Upanishads and preached it for the benefit
of humanity, as people are misguided with false doctrines.”4 Temples
and places of pilgrimage play a great role in Hindu religious life. Sankara
visited most of them, and imparted sanctity wherever necessary, by correcting
wrong ways of worship, by putting a stop to sacrifices that involved violence
to living beings. Sankara also established monastic centers or mutts in the
different parts of the country. He also charged his principal disciples to head
them so that each become a centre of Advaita tradition. Of the several mutts
the most important are Badri, Dwaraka, Jagannath and Sringeri. He erected the
edifice of Advaita and established four monasteries as centers of religious
teachings and missionary work. These mutts, to this date, are sources of light
and wisdom to millions of Hindus. It was envisaged that the spiritual welfare
of the whole country would be looked after by these four mutts from their
centers in east, west, north and south. The monks and bramacharis belonging to each mutt were enjoined to make a special
study of one of the four Vedas along with all the scriptural literature in
general. So we can say that Sankaras’s vision of establishing mutts was to
radiate India’s ageless message of Sanatana
dharma from various strategic points. It is in this context that we think
Sankara is referred to as a theologian.
But he who condemns
Sankara as a mere theologian whose faith is pinned to the Vedas must be either
hopelessly ignorant of Sankara-Vedanta or be himself nothing less than a
prejudiced dogmatic. Sankara never accepted the sruti blindly. It is only because he fully knows that sruti is the result of the highest
realization of the ancient sages, that he builds Advaita on the firm foundation
of Vedas. Now let us have brief look into the basic teachings of Sankara’s
advaita.
Sankara
as a philosopher:-
All search of knowledge originates in our instinct of
curiosity. It becomes so insistent in some persons that they make it their
life’s mission and they become philosophers in the technical sense of the term.
Philosophy signifies a natural and necessary urge in human beings to know
themselves and the world in which they live in and have their being. Hence
philosophy is defined as the interpretation of man and nature and their
relation towards each other. In this sense, philosopher is a person who is
always seeking to find answers to the ultimate questions regarding the world.
As Sankara discussed such ultimate questions and found his own answers to them,
he may be regarded as a philosopher in the right sense of the term. Again, the
orthodox and heterodox systems of Indian thought, though distinct in their
origin and general spirit, exhibit certain common features like epistemology,
metaphysics and ethics. All these elements can be clearly seen in the thought
of Sankara and so also he may be considered as a philosopher. In this part of
my paper we are highlighting that aspect of Sankara by giving a brief look into
his Advaita System.
The philosophy of Sankara is sublime and unique, highly
inspiring and elevating. It commands the admiration of the whole world. Indian
philosophy has always come to be identified with Sankara’s Advaita
philosophy.The quintessence of Sankara’s philosophy was stated by himself in
half-a-verse:
‘Brahma satyam jagan mithya
Jeevo brahmaiv naparah’
‘Brahman, the Absolute, alone is real; this world is
unreal (maya); and the jeeva or the individual soul is not
different from Brahman.’ The Upanishadic terms Brahman and atman indicates the
highest Reality, which is non-dual. Supreme Brahman is nirguna, nirvisesha, niraakaara, that is, without the gunas or attributes, formless, without
any special characteristics, immutable, eternal, and non-agent. Brahman is
above all needs and desires; it is always the witnessing subject; it can never
become the object as it is beyond the reach of the senses. It is non dual or
one without a second. The Absolute, the Existence (sat), Consciousness (cit),
and Bliss (ananda) form the swaroopa of Brahman. Brahman is not an
object as it is adrsya, beyond the
reach of the eyes. Its nature cannot be defined in terms of any categories;
hence the Upanishads declare: neti, neti-
not this not this. This does not mean that Brahman is a negative concept, or a
nonentity or contentless void. It is all-full, infinite, changeless
self-existent, self-delight, self-knowledge and self-bliss. It is the essence
of the knower. It is the Seer (drshta),
transcendental truth (turiya), Silent
Witness (sakshi).
Saguna Brahman and nirguna Brahman are not separate or two
Brahmans. The same Brahman appears as saguna
Brahman for the worship of the devotees; it is the same Truth from two
different points of view. Nirguna
Brahman is the highest Brahman from transcendental view point (paramathika); the saguna Brahman is from the relative view point (vyavahaika). The Supreme Truth is that
Brahman which is non-dual and relation less. To Sankara this world is only
relatively real (vyavaharika satta).He
advocated vivarta-vada, the theory of
phenomenal appearance or superimposition (adhyaasa).
Just as snake is superimposed on the rope in the twilight, this world and body
is superimposed on Brahman or Atman or Supreme Self. If we get knowledge of the
rope, the illusion of the snake in the rope will automatically vanish.
Similarly, if we get knowledge of Brahman or the imperishable, the illusion of
the body and the world will disappear. When avidya or the veil of ignorance is destroyed through knowledge of
the eternal, when mithya-jnana or
false knowledge if removed by real knowledge of the imperishable, we shine in
our true, pristine, divine, splendor and glory.
Atman is the same as Brahman. It is Pure Consciousness.
It is the Self which is the Self-luminous and which transcends the
subject-object duality and the trinity of knower, known and knowledge, and all
the categories of the intellect. This Self can never be denied, for the very
idea of denial presupposes it. It cannot be doubted, for all doubts rest on it.
All assertions, all doubts, all denials presuppose it. He who knows Brahman
becomes Brahman. Everything is relative and therefore ultimately unreal. The
self alone is not relative. It is, therefore, self-proved.
The principle that makes for the phenomenal appearance of
the world is Maya. It has significance only from the relative (vyavaharika) stand point and not from
the stand point of Absolute. Maya or Avidya
is not pure illusion. It is not only absence of knowledge. It is also positive
wrong knowledge. In fact it is indescribable. Brahman is the ground on which
the world appears through Maya. When right knowledge dawns the essential unity
of the jiva with the Paramatman is realized and Maya or Avidya vanishes.
Jiva is a blend of the self and
the non self. The jiva in its true
character is ‘Saksin’ or witness
which represents pure consciousness. It is characterized by swaroopajnana whereas the empirical self
or jiva is characterizes by vrittijnana. According to advaita, soul
is not created. Only its empirical outfit is created and what happens at death
is the change of this empirical outfit. Human experience is distinguished into
three states namely waking, dreaming and deep sleep. The true self transcends
all these three stages. It is known as the
turiya or the fourth.
The only way of realizing Brahman is jnana, and in order to attain this jnana and the supreme realization of the Absolute, a four-fold
path is prescribed: viveka-right
discrimination; vairagya-detachment
from the sensory attractions, leading to the extinction of desires; sama dana,
uparati, titiksha, Samadhi and sradha-calmness, self control, detachment, endurance, creative
concentration and faith,; and, above all, mumukshutva-
the sustained urge to attain liberation and the resolute will to shed human
limitations and realize the Absolute in life. Bhakti or devotion is only a step to secure the grace of God, which
would obliterate the distinction between the aspirant and God; and so is karma, actions without attachment, which
bring purity of mind and which lead to the higher state of jnana.
We can observe that the advaita of Sankara, in its
different aspects, is an attempt to follow out the Upanishadic idea of the
unity of all existence to its logical conclusion. According to Chandradhar
Sharma, “One may or may not agree with Advaita; one may freely choose any other
school of Vedanta or any other system of philosophy as more satisfactory; but
one cannot logically deny that Shankara’s interpretation is the correct
interpretation and Advaita is the is the central teaching of the Upanishadic
philosophy.”5 With all its defects and excellence it stands in the
history of human thought as the most consistent system of monism.
Sankara as a social reformer:-
The age which saw
the advent of Sankara was a dark period of unrest and strife. The country was
divided into a number of principalities which had very little in common between
them. The land had no religious master, and the population drifted without a
goal stagnating in innumerable sects, each championing its own narrow, limited
view point to the exclusion of all others. India was thus going through great intellectual,
spiritual and social turmoil. It was into such an age of fuming confusion,
chaotic intellectual anarchy and social decadence that Sankara was born. This
was pointed out by Jawaharlal Nehru when he wrote, “Adi Sankara strove hard to synthesize
the diverse currents that were troubling the mind of India of his day and to build
a unity of outlook out of that diversity. In a brief life of 32 years, he did
the work of many long lives and left such an impression of his powerful mind
and rich personality on India that is very evident today. He was a curious
mixture of a philosophy and a scholar, an agnostic and a mystic and a poet and
a saint and in addition to all this, a practical reformer and an able organizer”.6
A lot is known of Sankara as a philosopher but a very few is known about ‘the
Sankara’ as a social reformer. The more we learn to adore him not as a divine
incarnation but a sincere man inspired to serve the country through his
philosophy and reconquer the nation from its slavery to alien ideologies, the
more we shall successfully pay our tribute to our own culture. This part of our
paper is an attempt in that direction to see Sankara as a social reformer
rather than a philosopher or theologian.
Sankara who was imbued with a divine compassion which
exerts in the direction of providing enlightenment to the ignorant and
suffering humanity blossomed as a moral leader, a mentor of mankind and a
spiritual ruler of the world. By advocating the path of knowledge (jnana-marga) Sankara has liberated man
from rituals and sacrifices. This is something that affected the social life of
the individual and society.
To Sankara we owe the true conception of Swaraj. He realized that the unity of
India cannot be based on any kind of political kinship. So by establishing the
four religious monasteries in the four corners of India, Sankara had visualized
the national integration and solidarity of the country. In his article ‘What we
owe to Sankara’, Satchidananda Murthy remarks that “Sankara’s missionary zeal
and his establishment of monasteries influence the national leaders and
political thinkers to conceive national integration and oneness of the people”.7
Again, Sankara has brought out a revolution by introducing
the Sadhana catustaya as the only
four prerequisites to learn Brahmavidya.
He made it possible that caste and occupation are not criterion for brahmavidya. He also went against the dharmasastra view of life of going
through all the four life stages to become a sanyasin. He became a sanyasi
straight away from the life of brahmacarya.
Also he performed the funeral rite of his mother as per her wish when he was a sanyasin. Here we find in him appealing
to reason rather than blindly following the sruti.
He was of opinion that reason must be our guide if it contradicts with sruti because reason is much nearer to
our experience. Thus we find in Sankara’s life many instances where there was a
triumph of wisdom and reason with reference to human values against the
conventions. Swami Vivekananda, continuing this line of thinking, developed out
of the main positions of Sankara’s philosophy the demand for equality of human
beings. Starting from the upanishadic sentences of ‘tat tvam asi’ and ‘aham
brahma asmi’, the metaphysics of Vedanta was turned by Swami Vivekananda
towards the social aspects of society. Thus we see that Vivekananda on the
basis of Sankara’s philosophical concept developed a thorough humanist social
philosophy responding to the demands of his time.
The aim of life, according to Sankara, is beyond what is
achieved through life. Again, even after the realization of the ultimate end,
the liberated person does not leave society or the world, nor becomes
interested in it. Sankara’s life itself is a glaring example of this fact.
Even though in the transcendental level,
Sankara has negated all dualism, it does not mean that dualism of right and
wrong is as truer as all other dualism in the pragmatic level. Before the
achievement of liberation, he says man must have due consideration for the
right and wrong. Hence there is enough place for it in Sankara’s philosophy.
But after liberation is achieved such a consideration becomes superfluous
because the liberated person realizes the Brahman. Attainment of liberation
transforms all his life. By the transformation, the moral values are even more
glorified and spiritualized. This gives a new inspiration, energy, peace and
stability in practical life. Thus the ultimate end in Advaita philosophy is
beyond right and wrong but instead of negating them, it leads to them ultimate
fulfillment.
Sankara’s system is unmatched for its metaphysical depth
and logical consistency. It destroyed many old dogmas, not by violently attacking
them but by suggesting something more reasonable and practical. Sankaracharya
sought to clean the Vedic philosophy of obscurities and inconsistencies, and
thereby making it both comprehensive and acceptable to the people at large. He
thus resurrected the India of the ages and reawakened India’s national genius.
By means of his remarkable clearness, his supreme wisdom, and his profound
spirituality he has so stamped himself upon Vedanta that it has remained the
paragon of Indian philosophy and has given solace to the sorrowful heart of a
large segment of mankind.
To conclude the discussion it may be pointed that Sankara
was a theologian as well as a philosopher who tried his level best to bring
about social reforms in the country through the Advaitic philosophy of unity
and oneness. This was essential during his period. It is this unity based on
ethical and spiritual values, revitalized by Sankara that help us to stand in
good stead even today.
Reference:-
1. Radhakrishanan, Dr. S (1966) ‘Indian Philosophy’ Vol .II, London: George Allen & Unwin. P466
2.Namboodiri,Krishnan,Prof.P.K ‘ExperiencingAdvaita’,TheWeek,December,25,2011p.4
3Chinmayananda,Swami (1978) , ‘Sankara: the Missionary’, Bombay: Central Chinmaya Mission
Trust.p.4
4. Victor, P.George, (2007) ‘Life and Teachings of Adi Sankaracharya’, New Delhi. D.K. Print
world, pp.42-43
5. Sharma,Chandradhar.(2007) ‘The Advaita Tradition in Indian Philosophy’, Delhi. Motilal
Banarsidass, p166
6. Nehru, Jawaharlal. (1982) ‘The Discovery of India,’ New Delhi, Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund), p 190
7. Murthy, Saccidananada.(1989) ‘What We Owe to Sankara’ in Balasubramanian,R & Sibjajivan Bhattacharya , eds., ‘Perspectives of Sankara’, New
Delhi: Department of Culture, Govt.of
India. p.443
Dr.P.I.Devaraj,
Dr.Syamala.K,
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